Apologies in advance, to those of you on both listserves who will receive cross-postings. The following are the contents and abstracts for the most recent issue of _Aquatic Mammals_. This journal was established by the European Association for Aquatic Mammals (EAAM) in 1974. The EAAM, European Cetacean Society (ECS), and the Board of the Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums sponsor the journal. _Aquatic Mammals_ accepts a wide variety of papers on the care, conservation, medicine, and science of marine mammals. Dr. Jeanette Thomas of Western Illinois University is the editor and Dr. Kathleen Dudzinski of Mystic Aquarium is the co-editor. Dr. Dan Odell recently joined the publications editorial board. These abstracts are posted as a courtesy to the Marmam editors and the sponsoring societies, as well as the managing editor of _Aquatic Mammals_. Subscription information can be found on the journals Web site, which is at: http://www.wiu.edu/users/aquamamm/index/home.htm. For instructions to authors, abstracts of previous issues, and publication fees, see the journal website: EAAM (http://eaam.org) and ECS(www.broekemaweb.nl/ecs). The latest issue of _Aquatic Mammals_ is a special issue entitled: Comparative Cognition: Insights and Innovations. It is guest edited by Christine M. Johnson and Denise L. Herzing. This issue is a set of papers based on the talks at a workshop held in conjunction with the last (2005) Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, where set of researchers doing experimental and observational work on primates, cetaceans, and pinnipeds were gathered. The issue is divided into two parts. Part I is a set of papers that review contemporary cognitive research on primates and marine mammals. Part II includes papers that focus on innovations, both methodological and theoretical, that have been undertaken in the field of cognitive research. Please do not contact me or the listserve editors for copies of the articles. Instead, please find the addresses of the authors to whom reprint requests and other inquiries should be directed. When an email address was provided with the article, I included it with the article. Thank you for your continued interest in these postings, as well as other publication postings to the listserves. With regards, Dagmar Fertl Geo-Marine, Inc. dfertl@geo-marine.com http://www.geo-marine.com **************************************************************************** Johnson, C.M.* and D.L. Herzing. 2006. Primate, cetacean, and pinniped cognition compared: An introduction. Aquatic Mammals 32(4):409-412. *Department of Cogntive Science, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0515, USA (johnson@cogsci.ucsd.edu) No abstract provided. These few pages serve to provide background for why the issue was prepared, as well as its contents. **************************************************************************** Part I: Insights into the processes of social cognition ********************************************************* Kuczaj II, S.A.* and D.B. Yeater. 2006. Dolphin imitation: Who, what, when, and why? Aquatic Mammals 32(4):413-422. *University of Southern Mississippi, Department of Psychology, 118 College Drive, #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA (s.kuczaj@usm.edu) The imitative ability of nonhuman animals has intrigued a number of scholars and, in doing so, has generated a considerable amount of controversy. Although it is clear that many species can learn via observational learning, there is a lack of consensus concerning both what sorts of things can be learned by watching others and what types of observational learning should count as imitation. These disputes have led to disagreements about the extent to which various nonhuman species engage in imitation, based in large part on different definitions of imitation. An animal's imitative success also depends on the context. For example, dolphins can be taught to imitate on demand, and studies using such elicited imitation tasks have yielded mixed results. Dolphins can imitate behaviors produced by other dolphins and other animals (including humans) and are capable of deferred imitation. When dolphins are asked to imitate, it seems easier for them to reproduce familiar behaviors than novel ones. Adult dolphins appear to be more successful than juveniles at imitating on demand; however, young dolphins appear more likely than adults to spontaneously imitate behaviors. Young dolphins frequently spontaneously imitate the play behaviors of their peers, and sometimes acquire novel play behaviors in the process. Following Kuczaj et al. (2005), we suggest that the distinction between elicited and spontaneous imitation is important, and that understanding both types of imitation is essential. In addition to learning more about the factors that are influential when animals imitate, it is also imperative to understand the types of models and behaviors that are most likely to be imitated, the types of animals that are most likely to imitate others, and ontogenetic changes that occur in imitation. ************************************************************* Johnson, C.M.* and M.R. Karin-D'Arcy. 2006. Social attention in nonhuman primates: A behavioral review. Aquatic Mammals 32(4):423-442. Department of Cogntive Science, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0515, USA (johnson@cogsci.ucsd.edu) Social attention involves attention directed toward other individuals, as well as the coordination of attention among individuals. This topic has been the focus of much recent research with nonhuman primates. In this review, we focus on the behavior of the participants in this researchboth the animals and the humansrather than on its cognitive implications. After briefly reviewing theoretical issues and the sensorimotor constraints on primate attention, we describe the ethological and experimental work that has been done. The former, involving observational studies in field and captive settings, focuses on the functions of social attention and on differences in traditional and contemporary micro-ethological techniques. The experimental work is organized in terms of the types of social relationshipssolicitous, competitive, collaborativethat the various paradigms establish between subjects or between subject and experimenter. These include co-orientation (gaze-following) tasks, food-sharing tasks (such as conditional begging, donor choice, and object choice tasks), conspecific competition (such as occluder and informed leader tasks), and collaborative cue production (where subjects must cue an ignorant experimenter). In all of these tasks, we report the relative effectiveness of various attentional cues, including use of the hands (e.g., touching, pointing) and orientation of the body, head, and eyes. In our final discussion, we consider differences in focus in the observational vs experimental approaches (on negotiating social relationships vs access to food, respectively) and suggest ways in which the methods in these two arenas might be successfully integrated. We also discuss the advantages of considering the "ecology" of the laboratory setting and how recognizing the social and perceptual configurations established by different protocols can aid in their interpretation and design. Finally, we discuss the prevalence of individual differences in this research and how this underscores the importance of rearing history and other contextual factors in primate social attention. ********************************************* Pack, A.A.* and L.M. Herman. 2006. Dolphin social cognition and joint attention: Our current understanding. Aquatic Mammals 32:443-460. *direct correspondence to: The Dolphin Institute, 420 Ward Avenue, Suite 212, Honolulu, HI 96814, USA (pack@hawaii.edu) Recent intense interest in social cognition in dolphins reflects findings that wild dolphins live in complex societies that rely on individual recognition, a protracted period of development, coalition formation, and cooperative, as well as competitive, social behaviors. Laboratory studies have revealed a host of cognitive skills that can support such complex behaviorsfor example, broad imitative abilities, abilities to understand another's indicative cues, and spontaneous use of pointing to communicate with human companions. _Joint attention_ is recognized as a key element of social cognition that extends from simply following another's gaze to using pointing or gazing cues of another to select objects or locations. Studies of bottlenose dolphins (_Tursiops truncatus_) have revealed that they understand (1) human-given direct and cross-body points; (2) human-given dynamic and static pointing and gazing cues within object-choice tasks; (3) the geometry of pointing cues; (4) the referential character of pointing and gazing cues; (5) sequences of direct and/or cross-body points that were instructions to transport one object to another; (6) how to produce pointing cues and the importance of audience attention; and (7) possibly the belief state of another that is engaged in a joint attention task. The evidence suggests that joint attention skills in dolphins are robust and to some degree symmetric across comprehension and production. Comparative analyses indicate that in some areas of joint attention, abilities of dolphins exceed the demonstrated skills of apes. Possibly, a dolphin's capacity for joint attention may be related to the adaptive benefits of being able to attend to the focus of another dolphin's echolocation beam in conjunction with a sophisticated social structure dependent on attention to others. *************************************************** Deecke, V.B.* 2006. Studying marine mammal cognition in the wild: A review of four decades of playback experiments. Aquatic Mammals 32(4):461-482. *Marine Mammal Research Unit, Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada (deecke@zoology.ubc.ca) The playback of sounds to animals to assess their behavioural responses presents a powerful tool to study animal cognition in the wild. While playbacks are commonly used to study acoustic responses in birds and other terrestrial animals, their application to the study of marine mammal cognition so far has been limited. A survey of the published literature on field playback experiments with marine mammals identified 46 studies, with a trend towards increased use of playback approaches in recent years. Field playbacks to marine mammals have been used to address questions of wildlife management, the impact of anthropogenic noise, acoustic interactions between predators and prey, individual and kin recognition, as well as the function of communicative sounds. This paper summarizes the major findings of marine mammal playbacks to date and reviews recent advances in the design and execution of playback experiments, with special reference to marine mammals. Issues concerning appropriate presentation of acoustic stimuli, appropriate quantification of behavioural responses, as well as appropriate control and replication of treatments are discussed. An analysis of replication in marine mammal playbacks showed that the use of a small number of playback stimuli to conduct multiple playback trials (pseudoreplication) was common. This overview of playback experiments in the study of marine mammal cognition in the wild showed that such approaches contribute significantly to the field; however, in many cases, there appears to be substantial room for improvement of playback procedure and experimental design. ****************************************************** Lindemann, K.L.*, C. Reichmuth-Kastak, and R.J. Schusterman. 2006. The role of learning in the production and comprehension of auditory signals by pinnipeds. Aquatic Mammals 32(4):483-490. *Department of Psychology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Social Sciences 2, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA The aim of this paper is to discuss the important role that behavioral mechanisms, such as contingency learning and equivalence class formation, play in the production and comprehension of auditory signals in the context of mammalian social communication. Observations and experiments on vocal communication in mammals have often emphasized the importance of learning either from the perspective of the signaler or from the perspective of the receiver. It is our goal to discuss the roles and potential mechanisms of learning on both sides of communication. While marine mammals are notable in their capacity for complex learning in their vocal communication, until now, the major emphasis has been on the study of cetaceans. In the current paper, we focus primarily on the pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses) as a source for insight into how the learned aspects of auditory signaling and receiving may be acquired. We find that the results from carefully designed laboratory experiments can aid in the interpretation of field observations of communicative behavior. The complementary use of both of these approaches improves our understanding of the cognitive operations being carried out by animals in their natural environment. ********************************************************************** Part II - Innovative approaches in potential tools and techniques for measuring social cognition ********************************************************************** Flemming, T.M., M.J. Rattermann, and R.K.R. Thompson*. 2006. Differential individual access to and use of reaching tools in social groups of capuchin monkeys (_Cebus paella_) and human infants (_Homo sapiens_) Aquatic Mammals 32(4):491-499. *Department of Psychology, Franklin & Marshall College, P.O. Box 3003, Lancaster, PA 17604-3003, USA (Roger.Thompson@fandm.edu) The focus of much of comparative and developmental cognition has been on the individual as a solitary being whose behavior is isolated from the influence of social relationships. We report here results on access to and use of reaching tools by group-housed capuchin monkeys (_Cebus paella_) and a cohort of human infants in a daycare setting. In both cases, a given individual'smonkey or childaccess to their respective tools differed as a function of his or her social rank, but the probability of successful use of a tool by an individual did not. These results demonstrate that member- ship in a group may not only facilitate an individual's opportunity to discover the functional affordances of its physical environment but also inhibit its opportunities to express that knowledge. ********************************************************* Russon, A.E.* 2006. Acquisition of complex foraging skills in juvenile and adolescent orangutans (_Pongo pygmaeus_): Developmental influences. Aquatic Mammals 32(4):500-510. *Psychology Department, Glendon College of York University, 2275 Bayview Avenue, Toronto M4N 3M6, Canada (arusson@gl.yorku.ca) Research on primate cognition has spurred interest in developmental influences on skill acquisition, especially complex foraging skills in great apes and specifically as they relate to species' life history strategies. Survival skills are often mastered to functional levels near the onset of juvenility, for instance, this is when immatures are weaned and assume semi-independent lives. Several complications merit consideration: primate learning is lifelong; learners' situations change well beyond weaning; and individual tasks can vary such that they create rich problem spaces, mastering which entails acquiring and coordinating multifaceted skill sets. Accordingly, while skills may reach functional levels by weaning, they may be refined later. Juveniles, adolescents, and young adults, in particular, should generate such refinements given the developmental changes they experience in learning needs and opportunities, physical and cognitive abilities, and sociality. To assess acquisition beyond weaning, this study tracked the acquisition of foraging skills for extracting heart from a tree palm (_Borassodendron borneensis_) in juvenile and adolescent rehabilitant orangutans. Findings represent 744 cases of palm heart extraction, 31 rehabilitants ranging in age from older infants to young adults, and two forests in Indonesian Borneo. Data were collected observationally over 9 y and include partial longitudinal data for 14 rehabilitants. Results highlight the importance of fine-grained assessments of both behavior and problem space in understanding developmental influences on the acquisition of sophisticated foraging skills in great apes. Implications for the study of cetacean cognition are suggested. ************************************************************ Fellner, W.*, G.B. Bauer, and H.E. Harley. 2006. Cognitive implications of synchrony in dolphins: A review. Aquatic Mammals 32(4):511-516. *The Living Seas, Epcot, Walt Disney World Resort, Lake Buena Vista, FL 32830, USA Synchronous behaviors by dolphins in the wild are noted repeatedly. Recent fine-tuned assessments in the laboratory of the development of synchrony in newborn calves vis-à-vis their mothers highlight the strong predisposition of mother-calf pairs to spend most of their time behaving synchronously. Because dolphin calves apparently move continuously for the first month of their lives and stop comparatively infrequently for the first three months, the substantial energetic benefit they gain through slipstreaming may provide a mandate for mother-calf synchrony in terms of calf survival. We speculate that this constant intimate contact may lead to a succession of developmental stages in the calf that proceed from passive to active maintenance of synchrony and ultimately to imitation. This progression may explain shared within-group behaviors like mud-bank fishing, sponging, and herding. ********************************************************** Delfour, F.* 2006. Marine mammals in front of the mirrorbody experiences to self-recognition: A cognitive ethological methodology combined with phenomenological questioning. Aquatic Mammals 32(4):517-527. *Department of Liege, Department of Arts et Sciences de la Communication, Belgium Applying a systems perspective to both social complexity and cognition in primates critically addresses the Social Function of Intellect hypothesis formally proposed by Humphrey (1976). A systems approach to social complexity (Hinde, 1987) entails framing social dynamics hierarchically from individuals, through interactions, to relationships and group structure, empirically building up from interaction data. A systems perspective on cognition (Hutchins, 1995) entails identification of a cognitive unit of analysis that is inclusive of the participants and other elements that affect a regularly observed outcome. This system is then studied as a process. We sketch a methodological framework using two data sets from a field study of Olive baboons (_Papio anubis_) in Kenya. The first data set, on 2,913 male-female-infant (MFI) triadic interactions, was employed mainly to illustrate applying a systems approach to social complexity. The second data set, on 180 sexual consort turnover (CTO) events, illustrates the use of a systems approach to study cognition. Adding dynamics changes the understanding of trends and the detection of the sources of variance in social interaction data. The MFI analysis included a multilayered visualization that shows group effects while maintaining the richness of an individual's contribution. The CTO analysis showed how researchers can shift from looking at outcome (performance) to process (profiles of participation), which has much more relevance to the nature and development of cognition. A single CTO event captured on video provides an example of microanalysis at high temporal resolution (0.1 s) as well as the conferred advantage in shifting from discrete to continuous descriptions of behavior. Relations between system states and dynamics of individual elements can thus be systematically examined. The combined analyses suggest a flexible toolkit for addressing complex behavioral phenomena that can easily be extended to the study of other contexts and other species. ************************************************************** Forster, D.* and P.F. Rodriguez. 2006. Social complexity and distributed cognition in olive baboons (_Papio anubis_): Adding system dynamics to analysis of interaction data. Aquatic Mammals 32(4):528-543. *MOBU Research, Inc., 3757 ½ 7th Avenue, San Diego, CA 92013, USA (forstermobu@gmail.com) Applying a systems perspective to both social complexity and cognition in primates critically addresses the Social Function of Intellect hypothesis formally proposed by Humphrey (1976). A systems approach to social complexity (Hinde, 1987) entails framing social dynamics hierarchically from individuals, through interactions, to relationships and group structure, empirically building up from interaction data. A systems perspective on cognition (Hutchins, 1995) entails identification of a cognitive unit of analysis that is inclusive of the participants and other elements that affect a regularly observed outcome. This system is then studied as a process. We sketch a methodological framework using two data sets from a field study of Olive baboons (_Papio anubis_) in Kenya. The first data set, on 2,913 male-female-infant (MFI) triadic interactions, was employed mainly to illustrate applying a systems approach to social complexity. The second data set, on 180 sexual consort turnover (CTO) events, illustrates the use of a systems approach to study cognition. Adding dynamics changes the understanding of trends and the detection of the sources of variance in social interaction data. The MFI analysis included a multilayered visualization that shows group effects while maintaining the richness of an individual's contribution. The CTO analysis showed how researchers can shift from looking at outcome (performance) to process (profiles of participation), which has much more relevance to the nature and development of cognition. A single CTO event captured on video provides an example of microanalysis at high temporal resolution (0.1 s) as well as the conferred advantage in shifting from discrete to continuous descriptions of behavior. Relations between system states and dynamics of individual elements can thus be systematically examined. The combined analyses suggest a flexible toolkit for addressing complex behavioral phenomena that can easily be extended to the study of other contexts and other species. ******************************************************* Herzing, D.L.* 2006. The currency of cognition: Assessing tools, techniques, and media for complex behavioral analysis. Aquatic Mammals 32(4):544-553. *Research Director, Wild Dolphin Project, P.O. Box 8436, Jupiter, FL 33468, USA (wdpdenise@earthlink.net) Since 1985, long-term underwater observations of 220 Atlantic spotted dolphins (_Stenella frontalis_) and 200 bottlenose dolphins (_Tursiops truncatus_), have provided a unique opportunity to observe the flow of information within and between these societies in the clear waters of the Bahamas. Spotted dolphins are of known gender, relationships (mother/calf, siblings), and association patterns, thus providing a rich social relationship framework. In addition, human researchers enter into interactions with dolphins, providing flow of information between humans and these two delphinid species. Underwater video with hydrophone input has been used to capture contextually sensitive information, including associated vocalizations and behaviors (e.g., foraging, aggression, courtship, and discipline) with known individuals. These specific actions (e.g., gestures, vocalizations, gaze, body/head orientation, etc.) represent the potential media of information, or currency of cognition, available to dolphins. Such media are real-world, observable, and measurable signals through detailed behavioral analysis (i.e., Micro-ethology). By measuring this flow of information in context, in real-time interactions, and through changes over time, we may be able to assess the potential for distributed cognition in this social species. Issues such as gender, age, social relations, and developmental aspects will be brought into context for applying distributed cognition analysis techniques to dolphins in ecologically valid ways. ********************************************************************** Herzing, D.L.* and C.M. Johnson. 2006. Conclusions and possibilities of new frameworks and techniques for research on marine mammal cognition. Aquatic Mammals 32(4):554-557. *Research Director, Wild Dolphin Project, P.O. Box 8436, Jupiter, FL 33468, USA (wdpdenise@earthlink.net) No abstract provided. This article summarized the theme of the workshop by reviewing some main points of concern that emerged during the process that are important to continue exploration of marine mammal cognition: (1) field, observation, and laboratory work; (2) development issues; (3) individual differences; (4) statistics and normalization; (5) temporal issues; (6) sensory umwelt, behavioral context, and ecological validity; (7) cross-taxa issues; (8) expanding beyond cetaceans; and (9) archiving and accessing.